| چکیده انگلیسی مقاله |
Introduction
Being defined as the "abuse of public office and position for personal gain", corruption is a complex and multifaceted issue that affects both developed and developing countries alike. No region is immune to this pervasive phenomenon. While virtually every nation grapples with various forms of corruption to differing degrees, it poses particularly significant challenges for developing countries. This social issue undermines societal values and norms, eroding trust in the institutions designed to govern human affairs. Despite the wealth of macro-level studies on corruption, there remains a notable lack of focus on identifying the underlying and unique causal factors, particularly through a qualitative, case-oriented lens. To address this gap, this study employed a case-oriented approach to explore the diverse causal pathways leading to corruption in developing nations as supported by empirical examples specific to each context. The theoretical framework of this research integrated macro-level conditions that influenced corruption control. Utilizing the Parsonsian model, this study viewed society as a system comprised of 4 fundamental subsystems: economy, politics, society, and culture. These subsystems interacted within a network that shaped the overall order of society and, consequently, the effectiveness of corruption control, which was influenced by the quality and frequency of these interactions. Furthermore, these subsystems existed within a suprasystemic environment that exerted external influences, imparting unique characteristics related to the emergence or mitigation of corruption.
Materials & Methods
This study employed a comparative-qualitative method alongside a fuzzy approach. The fuzzy approach allowed for the examination of necessary and sufficient conditions through subset testing and calculation of compatibility and coverage indices. According to the subset principle, a cause was deemed necessary if the values associated with the effect (Y) form a subset of the cause (X). Conversely, it was considered a sufficient cause when the set of the cause (X) was a subset of the effect (Y). To achieve this, each causal and consequent condition in this study was treated as a linguistic variable and transformed into fuzzy scores through a mapping or membership rule. Membership functions were calibrated using domain knowledge and expert opinions. This research focused on 136 developing countries, utilizing valid data spanning the period from 2005 to 2021. Data collection was based on the information from the Institute for the Quality of Governance (2022) at the University of Gothenburg and supplemented by the data from 4 additional statistical sources: the Bertelsmann Stiftung Change Index, Transparency International, Social Progress, and Globalization Institute (KOF).
Discussion of Results & Conclusion
The analysis of necessary and sufficient conditions for individual causal factors indicated that inequality (specifically, a lack of equal opportunity), economic hardship, financial instability, violations of private property rights, and insufficient integration into the global system were likely sufficient conditions for corruption. Conversely, the absence of judicial independence, political stability, a robust party system, and social capital alone did not constitute a necessary or sufficient condition for corruption to occur. In examining conjunctive and compound causality, the most significant empirical pathway identified revealed that corruption arose in contexts marked by political tension and inequality, alongside the absence of judicial independence, welfare, social capital, a functioning party system, protection of private property, and global integration. Notably, the common thread among these causal pathways suggested that the lack of an independent judicial system and a strong party system combined with the presence of social capital created an environment conducive to corruption. Furthermore, social capital in the contexts characterized by systemic inefficiencies—such as a non-independent judiciary and ongoing political tensions—acted as a breeding ground for corruption. To simplify the various equations and combinations, the commonality across all pathways was identified. This analysis revealed that corruption tended to occur in countries lacking an independent judiciary or experiencing political conflict and tension; either of these conditions alone was sufficient for corruption to manifest. In contrast, the complementary findings for a set of clean and transparent countries suggested that these societies had largely achieved their success through three distinct pathways. Cultural and regional differences had influenced the development of these causal paths. For instance, in many Eastern European countries, a combination of reduced political tension, financial stability, equal opportunity, prosperity, social capital, a strong party system, protection of private property, and integration into the global system had contributed to their success in combating corruption. In certain Latin American countries, a combination of judicial independence, financial stability, equal opportunity, prosperity, social capital, a strong party system, protection of private property, and integration into the global system had contributed to greater transparency. Arab countries presented unique cases; despite facing significant challenges in political and social variables, they had managed to achieve some success in controlling corruption due to economic development and integration into the global system. The key features of this causal pathway included financial stability, prosperity, protection of private property, and global integration. Based on the findings, 3 categories of conditions related to corruption could be identified: conditions that fostered corruption, conditions that exacerbated it, and conditions that facilitated its control. Consequently, policies aimed at addressing corruption had to focus on these three aspects. When it comes to modifying the conditions that lead to corruption, promoting economic equality and financial stability is crucial. Regarding aggravating factors, lessons learned from various countries suggest that policies should prioritize the enhancement of a strong party system and greater integration into the global economy. However, it is essential to emphasize that combating corruption effectively requires an independent judicial system equipped with fair and efficient judicial processes. The authors of this article hope that the introduction of these causal pathways will be considered by policymakers and macro-level decision-makers in their efforts to address this disruptive social phenomenon. |